Anonymous. temp. Justinian I, circa 530. AR Third Siliqua (14.5mm, 0.99 g, 12h). Constantinople mint. Helmeted, draped, and cuirassed bust of Roma right / Large R. Bendall, Anonymous 9.Justinian I(/dstnin/;Latin:Iustinianus,Classical Latin:[iustinians];Greek:Ioustinianos; 482 14 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565.His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[5]This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire.[6]His general,Belisarius, swiftly conquered theVandal Kingdomin North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius,Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia,Sicily,Italy, and Rometo the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of theIberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empires annual revenue by over a million solidi.[7]During his reign, Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before.[8]He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad Is reign, and later again during Khosrow Is reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states.[9]His reign also marked a blossoming of Eastern roman (Byzantine) culture, and his building program yielded works such as the Hagia Sophia. Justinian was born in Tauresium,[10]Dardania,[11]probably in 482.[12]A native speaker of Latin(possibly the last Roman emperor to be one),[13]he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman[14][15][16]orThraco-Roman[17][18][19]origin. The name Iustinianus, which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birth place.[20][21][22]His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (theExcubitors) before he became emperor,[23]adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boys education.[23]As a result, Justinian was well educated in juris prudence,theology, and Roman history.[23]Justinian served as acandidatus, one of 40 men selected from the scholae palatinaeto serve as the emperors personal bodyguard.[2]The chroniclerJohn Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome. Another contemporary historian,Procopius, compares Justinians appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander.When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian.[23]Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor,[26]although there is no conclusive evidence of this.[27]As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler.[23]Following the general Vitalians assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian was appointed consul and commander of the army of the east.[23][28]Justinian remained Justins close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles of nobilissimus and caesar(heir-apparent).[29][26]He was crowned co-emperor on 1 April 527,[30][b]and became sole ruler after Justins death on 1 August 527.[30] As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach.[32]Around 525, he married his mistress,Theodora, in Constantinople. She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses.[33][34]Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser;Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinians finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinians wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals,BelisariusandNarses. Justinians rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperors life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562.[35]Justinian was struck by the plaguein the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548[36]at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine,[37]became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565,[38]childless. He was succeeded byJustin II, who was the son of his sisterVigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinians body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204by the Latin Statesof theFourth Crusade. Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of allRoman law,[40]something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinians legislation is known today as theCorpus juris civilis. It consists of the Codex Justinianeus, the Digestaor Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae. Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the quaestor Tribonianto oversee this task. The first draft of the Codex Justinianeus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the Digesta(orPandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a text book explaining the principles of law. The Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinians reign, supplements the Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire. The Corpusforms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiasticalCanon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which theleges(laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws,senatorial consults (senatus consulta), imperial decrees,case law, and jurists opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentium). Tribonians code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in theBasilika ofBasil IandLeo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-calledPragmatic Sanction of 554),[41]from where it was to pass to Western Europein the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to theAmericas and beyond in theAge of Discovery. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on toRussia.[42]It remains influential to this day. He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice.[43] Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg.[44] Justinian discontinued the regular appointment ofConsulsin 541.[45] Nika riots Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of allRoman law,[40]something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinians legislation is known today as theCorpus juris civilis. It consists of theCodex Justinianeus, theDigestaorPandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae. Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed thequaestorTribonianto oversee this task. The first draft of theCodex Justinianeus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the Digesta(or Pandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. The Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinians reign, supplements theCorpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novell aeappeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire.[] The Corpusforms the basis of Latin juris prudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which theleges(laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws,senatorial consults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees,case law, and jurists opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentium). Tribonians code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the Basilika of Basil Iand Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-calledPragmatic Sanction of 554),[41]from where it was to pass to Western Europein the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the Americas and beyond in theAge of Discovery. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia.[42]It remains influential to this day. He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from beingforced into prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice.[43] Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg.[44] Justinian discontinued the regular appointment ofConsulsin 541.[45] Nika riots From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with theSassanid Empire.[51]In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Daraand Satala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum.[52]Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumitesof Ethiopia and the Himyaritesof Yemen against the Persians, but this failed.[53]When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold)[52]with his successor Khosrau I(532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, whereGermanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire. Conquest of North Africa, 533534Edit Main article:Vandalic War The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousinGelimerin 530 A.D. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimers actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concludedhis ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533.[54] In 533,Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia)in modern Tunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimumon 14 September 533 and Tricamarumin December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph.Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem Fratresnear Mons Calpe(later named Gibraltar) were recovered in the same campaign.[5 In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence."[56] An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534,[57]but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moorsand military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548,[58]but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.[59] War in Italy, first phase, 535540 As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper,Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuintha,Theodorics daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. There upon Belisarius, with 7,500 men,[60]invadedSicily(535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigisas their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general,Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign.Milanwas taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalledNarsesin 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title ofWestern Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of thePo Riverin Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire.[61]Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigisand his wife Matasuntha with him. War with the Sassanid Empire, 540562 Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt against the Empire in Armeniain the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau Ibroke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540.[62]He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch(allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city),[63]besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Seaas requested by its discontented king Gubazes, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.[63] Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court.[64]The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow Is offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force atAnglon.[65]The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that, the Lazic Warin the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sent Dagisthaeus to recapture Petra, but he faced heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements. Justinian replaced him with Bessas, who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to capture and dismantle Petrain 551. The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by aFifty Years Peacein 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000solidi) to be paid by the Romans.[66] War in Italy, second phase, 541554Edit While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kingsIldibadandEraric(both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After avictory at Faenzain 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating aGothicfleet of 200 ships.[citation needed]During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulatedby the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses.[67]The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at thebattle of Busta Gallorumin the Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactariusin October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankishinvasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men.[68]The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold.[59]Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died.[69] Other campaigns In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against KingAgila I. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius.[70]The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.[citation needed] During Justinians reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by theTurkicand Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigur sunder their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.[71] ResultsEdit Justinians ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought.[72]The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply resented. The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinians death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa.[citation needed] Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historianMenander Protectorfelt the need to attribute the Emperors failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age.[73]In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.[74] Religious activities Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as aheresyby theCouncil of Chalcedonin 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism ofZenoandAnastasius Ihad been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.[75] Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises.[76] Religious policyEdit As in his secular administration,despotism appeared also in the Emperors ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Churchs belief in theTrinityand theIncarnation, and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties,[77]whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense bydue processof law.[78]He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church[79]and accorded legal force to the canons of the fourecumenical councils.[80]The bishops in attendance at the Council of Constantinople (536)recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperors will and command,[81]while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of thePatriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription.[82]Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church andclergy, and to protect and extendmonasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receivesolemnia, or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasuryor from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates.[citation needed] Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both theCodexand theNovellaecontain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church ofHagia Sophia(which cost 20,000 pounds of gold),[83]the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, andmosaics, became the centre and most visible monument ofEastern Orthodoxyin Constantinople.[84] Religious relations with Rome.Edit From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncles accession in 518, and put an end to theAcacian schism. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized theCouncil of Chalcedon, which had condemnedMonophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome.[85]After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favoredVigiliusand had his rivalSilveriusdeported.[citation needed] This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinians policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of theThree Chapters, three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperors demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophy sites remained unsatisfied all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.[citation needed] Authoritarian ruleEdit Justinians religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be theorthodoxy (Chalcedonian). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time ofConstantius IIand which would now vigorously continue. TheCodex contained two statutes[86]that decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas,Theophanes, andJohn of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position.[dubiousdiscuss] The originalAcademyof Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictatorSullain 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, aNeoplatonic Academywas established that had no institutional continuity with Platos Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinians empire, continued.[87] During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat. The extreme weather events of 535536led to a famine such as had not been recorded before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East.[123]These events may have been caused by an atmospheric dust veil resulting from a largevolcanic eruption.[124][125] The historianProcopiusrecorded in 536 in his work on theVandalic War"during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear".[126][127] The causes of these disasters are not precisely known, but volcanoes at theRabaul caldera,Lake Ilopango,Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, inIcelandare suspected.[123] Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak ofBubonic Plague, known as thePlague of Justinianand second only toBlack Deathof the 14th century, killed tens of millions. Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain.[128][129] In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the551 Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. The combined fatalities of both events likely exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria.
